Everything about New York University totally explained
New York University (
NYU) is a
private,
nonsectarian,
coeducational
research university in
New York City. NYU's main campus is situated in the
Greenwich Village section of
Manhattan. Founded in 1831, NYU is the largest private,
nonprofit institution of
higher education in the
United States, with an enrollment of more than 40,000.
NYU consists of 16 schools, colleges, and divisions, located in six centers throughout Manhattan. NYU operates
study abroad facilities in
London,
Paris,
Florence,
Prague,
Madrid,
Berlin,
Accra,
Shanghai, will have facilities in
Singapore by fall 2007, and has just announced facilities slated to open Spring 2008 in
Buenos Aires and
Tel Aviv.
Most recently, the government of the
United Arab Emirates has announced plans to fund a campus abroad for NYU in the capital city of
Abu Dhabi, the first of its kind to be established abroad by a major U.S. research university, which is set to receive students by 2010. Additional proposed sites are being finalized in the
Persian Gulf Region and the
Middle East.
In a deal recently approved by its board,
Polytechnic University, an engineering and technology university located in Brooklyn, New York, will merge into NYU sometime in 2008, providing NYU with an engineering school.
On
April 21,
1831, the new institution received its
charter and was incorporated as the University of the City of New York by the
New York State Legislature; older documents often refer to it by that name. The university has been popularly known as New York University since its beginning and was officially renamed New York University in 1896. In 1832, NYU held its first classes in rented rooms of four-story Clinton Hall, situated near
City Hall. Feeling the pressures of imminent bankruptcy, NYU President
James McNaughton Hester negotiated the sale of the University Heights campus to the
City University of New York, which occurred in 1973. After the sale of the Bronx campus, University College merged with Washington Square College. In the 1980s, under the leadership of President
John Brademas, NYU launched a billion-dollar campaign that was spent almost entirely on updating facilities.. The campaign was set to complete in 15 years, but ended up being completed in 10. In 2003 current President
John Sexton launched a 2.5-billion dollar campaign for funds to be spent especially on faculty and financial aid resources.
The university logo, the upheld torch, is derived from the
Statue of Liberty, signifying NYU's service to the city of New York. The torch is depicted on both the NYU seal and the more abstract NYU logo, designed in 1965 by renowned graphic artist
Ivan Chermayeff. There are two versions of the origin of the university color,
violet. Some believe that it may have been chosen because
violets are said to have grown abundantly in Washington Square and around the buttresses of the Old University Building. Others argue that the color may have been adopted because the violet was the flower associated with
Athens, the center of learning in
ancient Greece.
Cultural setting
Washington Square and
Greenwich Village have been hubs of cultural life in
New York City since the early nineteenth century. Much of this culture has intersected with NYU at various points in its history. Artists of the
Hudson River School, the United States’ first prominent school of painters, settled around
Washington Square.
Samuel F.B. Morse, the first chair of Painting and Sculpture at NYU, and
Daniel Huntington were early tenants of the Old University Building in the mid-nineteenth century. (The University rented out studio space and residential apartments within the "academic" building.) Artists and intellectuals such as
Edgar Allan Poe,
Mark Twain,
Herman Melville and
Walt Whitman contributed to the artistic scene near NYU. As a result, they'd notable interaction with the cultural and academic life of the University.
Campus
Most of NYU's buildings are located across a roughly square area bounded by
Houston Street to the south,
Broadway to the east,
14th Street to the north, and
Sixth Avenue (Avenue of the Americas) to the west. Most of NYU's buildings surround
Washington Square Park.
Washington Square campus
Since the late 1970s, the central part of NYU has been its Washington Square campus in the heart of
Greenwich Village. Despite being public property the
Washington Square Arch is the unofficial symbol of NYU. Every year NYU holds its commencement ceremonies in Washington Square Park.
In the 1990s, NYU became a "two square" university by building a second community around
Union Square, about a 10-minute walk from Washington Square. NYU's Union Square community primarily consists of the sophomore priority residence halls of Carlyle Court, Palladium Residence Hall, Alumni Hall, Coral Tower, Thirteenth Street Hall, and freshmen residence halls Third North Residence Hall and University Hall.
NYU operates theaters and performance facilities that are often used by the University's
music conservatory and
Tisch School of the Arts. External productions are also occasionally held in NYU's facilities. The largest performance accommodations at NYU are the
Skirball Center for Performing Arts (850 seats) at 566 LaGuardia Place, just south of Washington Square South; and the Eisner-Lubin Auditorium (560 seats) in the Kimmel Center. Recently, the Skirball Center hosted important speeches on foreign policy by
John Kerry and
Al Gore as well as the recording of the
third season finale of The Apprentice. The Skirball Center is the largest performing arts facility south of
42nd Street.
Bobst Library
The Elmer Holmes Bobst Library, built between 1967 and 1972, is the largest library at NYU and one of the largest academic libraries in the U.S. Designed by
Philip Johnson and
Richard Foster, the 12-story, 425,000 square feet (39,000 m²) structure sits on the southern edge of Washington Square Park and is the flagship of an eight-library, 4.5 million volume system. The library is visited by more than 6,500 users each day, and circulates almost one million books annually. In addition to its regular collection it houses special collections and archives, including the Archives of Irish America and the
Tamiment Library and Robert F. Wagner Archives.
In late 2003, Bobst Library was the site of two suicides. Two students jumped from the open-air crosswalks inside the library onto the marble floor below. The students later died of their injuries. After the second suicide, NYU installed plexi-glass windows on each level to prevent further attempts. In 2003, Bobst Library was also in the news for being the home of a
homeless student who resided at the library because he couldn't afford student housing.
New facilities
Since the early 2000s NYU has developed new facilities on and around its Washington Square Campus. The Kimmel Center for University Life was built in 2003 to serve as the primary location for the University's student services offices. The center also houses the Skirball Center for the Performing Arts, the Rosenthal Pavilion, the Eisner & Lubin Auditorium, and the Loeb Student Center. The School of Law built Furman Hall in 2004, incorporating elements of two historic buildings into the new facade, one of which was occupied by poet
Edgar Allan Poe.
In 2005, NYU announced the development of a new life science facility on
Waverly Place. The facility is the first NYU science building developed since the opening of Meyer Hall in 1971. In November 2005, NYU announced plans to build a 26-floor, 190,000 square foot residence hall on 12th Street. The residence hall is expected to accommodate about 700 undergraduates and contain a host of other student facilities. It is to be the tallest building in the
East Village. The plans have caused anger among East Village and other
New York City residents, as the new building would be built over the old St. Ann's Church.
Other campuses and facilities
The
NYU Medical Center is situated near the East River waterfront at 550 First Avenue between East 30th and
East 34th Streets. The campus hosts the
Medical School, Tisch Hospital, and the
Rusk Institute of Rehabilitation Medicine. Other NYU Centers across the city include NYU Hospital for Joint Diseases and the
Bellevue Hospital Center. NYU’s Ehrenkranz School of Social Work manages branch campus programs in Westchester County at
Manhattanville College and in
Rockland County at
St. Thomas Aquinas College.
In Sterling Forest, near Tuxedo, New York, NYU has a research facility that contains institutes, in particular the Nelson Institute of Environmental Medicine. The Midtown Center at 11 West 42nd Street and the
Woolworth Building in the financial district are home to NYU's continuing education programs.
NYU has a host of foreign facilities used for
study abroad programs. Most noteworthy is the 57-acre campus of NYU Florence
Villa LaPietra in Italy, bequeathed by the late Sir
Harold Acton to NYU in 1994. NYU manages undergraduate academic year study abroad programs in
Florence,
London,
Paris,
Prague,
Berlin,
Accra, and
Madrid; and recently started programs in
Shanghai and
Buenos Aires. On
June 1,
2007, NYU announced plans to develop a campus in
Israel with
Tel Aviv University. The program is scheduled to begin accepting students for the 2008-2009 academic year.
NYU also has international houses on campus, including the Deutsches Haus,
La Maison Française, the Glucksman Ireland House, Casa Italiana, the King Juan Carlos I of Spain Center, the Hagop Kevorkian Center, an Africa House and a China House. NYU was also the founding member of the
League of World Universities.
Residence halls
With 12,500 residents, NYU has the seventh largest university housing system in the U.S. and the largest among private schools. Uniquely, many of NYU's residence halls are converted
apartment complexes or old
hotels. Most freshman residence halls are in the Washington Square area. While nearly all of the residence halls that primarily house upperclassmen are in the
Union Square area, two of them are located in the
Financial District and one in
Chinatown. The university operates its own transit system to transport its students, by
bus, to campus. Undergraduate students are guaranteed housing during their enrollment at NYU. Twenty-one buildings are in NYU's undergraduate housing system. In general, NYU residence halls receive favorable ratings, and some are opulent. Many rooms are spacious and contain amenities considered rare for individual college residence hall rooms, such as kitchens and living rooms/common areas. All the residence halls are governed by the
Inter-Residence Hall Council (IRHC), an umbrella student council organization. In 2007, the
National Association of College and University Residence Halls named NYU the National School of the Year for IRHC and
NRHH's strong efforts over the past year. In addition, NYU was awarded National Program of the Year for UltraViolet Live, the annual inter-hall competition that raises funds for
Relay For Life.
There has been friction between the residents of the
East Village and NYU. Amongst brownstones and historic buildings, the school has built many of large residence halls. NYU's destruction or purchase of many historic buildings (such as the Peter Cooper post office or St. Ann's Church, a rusticated-stone structure with a
Romanesque tower that dated to 1847) have made it symbolic of change that many long-time residents fear is destroying what made the neighborhood interesting and attractive.
Academics
Schools and colleges
New York University comprises 16 colleges, schools, and divisions. The
College of Arts and Science was the first and only school when NYU was founded. In addition to CAS, the undergraduate schools include: the
Gallatin School of Individualized Study; the
School of Social Work; the
Steinhardt School of Culture, Education and Human Development - the first school of education in the United States; the
Stern School of Business; and
Tisch School of the Arts. A number of these schools also offer graduate and professional programs.
In addition, the University offers programs in postgraduate schools and divisions: the
College of Dentistry, the
College of Nursing, the
Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences, the
Institute of Fine Arts, the
School of Continuing and Professional Studies, the
School of Law, the
School of Medicine,
Graduate School of Arts and Science, and the
Wagner Graduate School of Public Service.
NYU closed their School of Aeronautics in 1973, their College of Veterinary Surgeons in 1922, and merged other previous programs with other schools. For example, their School of Engineering was merged with the
Polytechnic University of New York in 1973, and NYU's former College Hofstra Memorial is
Hofstra University as of 1963. On
August 7 2007, NYU and
Polytechnic University announced that the two institutions are engaged in merger discussions.In October, 2007, NYU’s Board of Trustees and the Board of Trustees of Polytechnic University have both approved their continuing to move forward toward a merger of NYU and Polytechnic University. Both universities will continue to draft a Definitive Agreement, the document that will more fully define the relationship between the universities.
Rankings
According to the three most well-known university ranking systems, NYU is ranked:
Regarding
academic disciplines and programs, NYU is ranked #11 in the
social sciences among Shanghai Jiao Tong University's world's top 100 universities. NYU is ranked #1 in
Italian,
finance,
mathematics, and
theater in the U.S. by the Faculty Scholarly Productivity Index, which uses data, such as faculty publications, grants, and honors and awards to rank 104 doctoral programs in 10 academic disciplines based on the research productivity of faculty members.
NYU's
Stern School of Business undergraduate program is ranked among the top five in the U.S. Stern's MBA program is ranked among the top 15 in the U.S. and worldwide: #10 in U.S. News, #8 in
Financial Times 2007, #14 in
BusinessWeek, #8 in
The Economist, and #2 by research contribution. The
School of Law is ranked #5 among
law schools in the U.S. by U.S. News and World Report. The law school is particularly noted as the nation's top law school in tax law, international law, and
jurisprudence (philosophy of law). NYU's law school is noted, among other achievements, for the success of its alumni in obtaining prestigious
clerkships on the
Supreme Court of the United States. Although none of NYU's alumni have been appointed justices of this court, NYU's alumni have served as judges of the
International Court of Justice.
NYU's law school has a jointly offered Osgoode-NYU LLB/JD degree with the prestigious
Osgoode Hall Law School of
York University in Toronto, Canada allowing students to obtain both a top tier American JD and a top tier Canadian LLB in only four years.
NYU's
philosophy department is ranked #1 among 50 philosophy departments in the English-speaking world. NYU's
economics department is ranked #10 among 200 economics departments worldwide. NYU's
Steinhardt School of Culture, Education and Human Development has one of the top 15 education programs in the U.S. NYU's
Wagner Graduate School of Public Service is ranked 10th nationally by U.S. News and World Report. In addition, several of Wagner's public affairs specializations are ranked in the top 10. The
Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences is ranked #5 in citation impact worldwide, #12 in citation worldwide, and #1 in applied mathematics in the U.S. The
Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences is also known for its research in pure mathematical areas, such as
partial differential equations (Professors
Peter Lax and
S. R. Srinivasa Varadhan won the 2005 and 2007
Abel Prize respectively for their research in this area) as well as applied mathematical areas, such as
computational biology and
computational neuroscience.
NYU's
Tisch School of the Arts has produced more Academy Award winners than any other institution in the U.S.
Admissions and enrollment
NYU has a large, diverse student population representing more than 130 countries. More than 70% of NYU's incoming freshmen are from outside the
Tri-State Area. Ten percent of the students are from one of New York City's
five boroughs and 20% are from 17 nearby counties. About 65% of NYU's undergraduates attended public high schools.
Admissions don't consider the financial situation of the students. Although the
Princeton Review ranks NYU #1 in the category "Students Dissatisfied with Financial Aid," more than 50% of students receive financial aid. 2007-2008 was a record-breaking application year for NYU, with the school receiving over 37,000 freshman applications (more than any private college or university in the United States), an increase of 8.7% above the previous year.
The school's admissions rate fell to an NYU record low of 24% of applicants. Because of the increase in the number of applications over the years, NYU has implemented a highly selective admissions policy.
The Class of 2011 (entering Fall 2007) is made up of 4,395 students, 25.4% of which were early decision candidates. The middle 50% of SAT scores for the Class of 2011 fell between a 1300 and a 1430 while the middle 50% of ACT scores were between 29 and 31. The average High School GPA was a 3.63 and 70% of incoming students were in the top 10% of their class. From 2004 to 2007, NYU was ranked by the
Princeton Review as America's #1 "dream school" (first choice when factors such as the price and the school's selectivity are not considered) among high school seniors. In 2008 however, NYU slipped to 4th place in the
Princeton Review poll, lead only by Harvard, Yale, and Stanford. In 2006, NYU was named by
Kaplan as one of the "New Ivies".
Budget and fundraising
New York University is currently in the middle of a seven-year, $2.5 billion
fundraising effort called "The Campaign for NYU". The campaign has already included a $50 million gift from the Tisch family (after which one building and the
art school are named) and a $60 million gift from six
trustees called "The Partners Fund", aimed at hiring new faculty. On
October 15,
2007 the University announced that the Silver family donated $50 million to the
School of Social Work, which will be renamed as a result. This was the largest donation ever to a school of social work in the United States.
In addition, the University recently announced its 25-year strategic development plan, scheduled to coincide with its
bicentennial in 2031. Included in the "NYU 200" plans are increasing resident and academic space, hiring exemplary faculty, and involving the New York City community in a transparent planning process. NYU hopes to make their buildings more environmentally friendly as well, which will be facilitated by an evaluation of all campus spaces. As a part of this plan, NYU purchased 118
kilowatt-hours of
wind power during the 2006-2007 academic year – the largest purchase of wind power by any university in the country and any institution in New York City. As a result, the
EPA ranked NYU as the greenest college in the country in its annual College & University Green Power Challenge.
Student life
Student government
The
Student Senators Council is the
governing student body at NYU. The SSC has been involved in controversial debates on campus, including a campus-wide ban on the sale of
Coke products in 2005 and the
Graduate Student Organizing Committee unionization in 2001 and subsequent strike in 2005.
Student organizations
NYU has over 350 student clubs and organizations on campus. Apart from the sports teams, fraternities, sororities, and clubs that focus on fields of study, other organizations on campus focus on entertainment, arts, and culture. These organizations include various print media clubs: for instance, the daily newspaper the
Washington Square News, comedy magazine
The Plague, and the literary journals Washington Square Review and The Minetta Review, as well as student-run event producers such as the NYU Program Board and the Inter-Residence Hall Council.
During the University Heights era, an apparent rift evolved with some organizations distancing themselves from students from the downtown schools. The exclusive
Philomathean Society operated from 1832-1888 (formally giving way in 1907 and reconstituted into the Andiron Club). Included among the Andiron’s regulations was “Rule No.11: Have no relations save the most casual and informal kind with the downtown schools”.
The Eucleian Society, rival to the Philomathean Society, was founded in 1832. The Knights of the Lamp was a social organization founded in 1914 at the School of Commerce. This organization met every full moon and had the glowworm as its mascot. In addition, NYU’s first yearbook was formed by fraternities and "secret societies" at the university.
New York University has traditions which have persisted across campuses. Since the beginning of the
Twentieth century initiation ceremonies have welcomed incoming NYU
freshmen. At the Bronx University Heights Campus, seniors grabbed unsuspecting first-year students and took them to a horse-watering trough. The freshmen were dunked head first into what was known colloquially as “the fountain of knowledge”. This underground initiation took place until the 1970s. Today freshman take part in university sponsored activities during what is called "Welcome Week". In addition, throughout the year the University traditionally holds Apple Fest (an apple-themed country fest started at the University Heights campus), Violet Ball (a dance in the atrium of the library), Strawberry Fest (featuring New York City's longest
Strawberry Shortcake), and the semi-annual Midnight Breakfast where Student Affairs administrators serve students free breakfast before finals.
Greek life
Greek life first formed on the NYU campus in 1837 when
Psi Upsilon chartered its Delta Chapter. The first fraternities at NYU were social ones. With their athletic, professional, intellectual, and service activities, later groups sought to attract students who also formed other groups. Since then, Greek letter organizations have proliferated to include 25 social fraternities and sororities. However, less than 1% of NYU students choose to join fraternities or sororities.
Four governing boards oversee Greek life at the university. The Interfraternity Council (IFC) has jurisdiction over all 14 recognized fraternities on campus. Six sororities are under the jurisdiction of the Panhellenic Council (PhC); four multicultural sororities maintain membership in the Multicultural Greek Council (MGC). All three of the aforementioned boards are managed under the auspices of the Inter-Greek Council.
Greek organizations have historical significance at NYU.
Zeta Psi Fraternity of North America,
Alpha Epsilon Pi, and
Delta Sigma Pi were founded at NYU.
Zeta Psi Fraternity of North America, was chartered in 1847.
Delta Sigma Pi, was chartered in 1907.
Alpha Epsilon Pi, was chartered in 1913. The NYU chapter of
Delta Phi, founded in 1841, claims to be the longest continuously active fraternity chapter in the world. PhC features three national sororities, (ΑΈΦ,ΔΦΈ and ΆΣΤ) and three local sororities (ΘΦΒ, ΚΨΔ and ΆΦΖ). Notably, the first chapter of
Delta Phi Epsilon was founded at NYU in 1917.
Athletics
NYU's sports teams are called the Violets, the colors being the trademarked hue "NYU Violet" and white; the school
mascot is the bobcat. Almost all sporting teams participate in the
NCAA's
Division III and the
University Athletic Association.
While NYU has had
All-American football players, the school hasn't had a varsity
football team since the 1960s. Notable players include Hall of Famer
Ken Strong (1956) and
Ed Smith (1934), the model for the
Heisman Trophy. In the 1940 season, before a football game between NYU and
Missouri, students protested against the "gentlemen's agreement" to exclude
black athletes (at
Missouri's request). The protest against this practice is the first time such protests were recorded to have occurred.
The
National Intercollegiate Women's Fencing Association (NIWFA) was founded by NYU freshmen
Julia Jones and Dorothy Hafner.
NYU’s rival, dictated by history and geography has been
Columbia University, though it appears from older fight songs that
Rutgers University was also NYU’s rival at some point.
NYU, in its short history in NCAA Division III, has won a two national team championships and many league championships. The basketball program has enjoyed a good deal of success since its return to intercollegiate competition. In 1997, the women’s basketball team, led by head coach Janice Quinn, won a national championship over the
University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire and in 2007 returned to the Final Four. NYU men's basketball and head coach
Joe Nesci appeared in the Division III National Championship game in 1994. In 2006, the Men's cross country team finished 2nd at the NCAA Championship. The following year, led by Jon Phillips, the Men's cross country team won the 2007 NCAA National Cross Country Championship at St. Olaf's College in Minnesota.
NYU men's and women's swimming teams captured consecutive (2004–2005)
Eastern College Athletic Conference (ECAC) Division III Swimming and Diving Championships. Christian Majdick of the men’s track and field team captured the NCAA Division III championship for the triple jump in 2003. Lauren Henkel, one of the most successful athletes in NYU track and field history, and the current assistant coach of the women's track and field team, acquired
All-American status three times for High Jump.
The men’s soccer team won its league ECAC championship in the 2005–2006 season.
NYU students also compete in club and intramural sports, including
lacrosse,
crew,
squash,
rugby union,
badminton,
ice hockey,
baseball,
softball,
equestrian,
martial arts,
ultimate, and
triathlon. The
Coles Sports and Recreation Center serves as the home base of several of NYU's intercollegiate athletic teams. Many of NYU's varsity teams play their games at various facilities and fields throughout Manhattan because of the scarcity of space for playing fields near campus. In 2002, NYU opened the Palladium Athletic Facility as the second on-campus recreational facility.
Faculty and alumni
NYU counts 31
Nobel Prize winners; 9
National Medal of Science recipients; 16
Pulitzer Prize winners; 19
Academy Award winners (more than any other American university); among its past and present
graduates and faculty.
As befitting the largest private non-profit university in the country, NYU has one of the largest alumni bodies in the world. At the end of 2004, NYU had about 350,000 alumni. Of these, at least 17,000 live abroad. The New York University Office for Alumni Affairs oversees the various activities, such as class reunions, local NYU Club gatherings, NYU alumni travel, and Career Services. The Alumni club on campus is the Torch Club. Notable graduating classes include 1941, which graduated three later
Nobel Prize laureates (
Julius Axelrod,
Gertrude B. Elion and
Clifford Shull), Olympic Gold Medalist
John Woodruff, sportscaster
Howard Cosell and sociologist
Morris Janowitz; and 1977 included: former
Fed Chairman Alan Greenspan;
IRS Commissioner Mark Everson;
INSEAD Dean Gabriel Hawawini;
Pulitzer,
Oscar and
Tony Award winner
John Patrick Shanley;
NHL Commissioner Gary Bettman;
NASDAQ CEO
Robert Greifeld; and
Cathy Minehan, Federal Reserve Chairman Boston; and 1999 included: renowned food critic Jimmy Lau.
Since 1885, the most spirited undergraduate class has been awarded “The Bun”. The award consisted of a bun enclosed in a long casket-like enclosure made of silver. The Bun was taken three times: in 1921, 1971, and 1981. The award was last returned in 2002 and currently resides in the
Silver Center.
The NYU Club in midtown closed in 1989. Alumni can now apply for membership at the
Princeton Club.
NYU in film and literature
NYU has been portrayed in television shows and films. Fictional NYU students and faculty include
Will Truman (from "
Will & Grace"), who was portrayed as having attended NYU Law;
Kramer's intern Darren in
Seinfeld, who helps him run "Kramerica Industries"; a student reporter in a different episode of Seinfeld who interviews
Jerry;
Theo Huxtable from
The Cosby Show, who graduates from NYU in the series finale; Finch from the
American Pie films;
Ross Geller in
Friends, who becomes an NYU Professor in Season 6; Mark Cohen and Tom Collins from
Rent, who respectively studied film there as an undergrad and taught there;
Charlie Sheen in the movie
Wall Street; and
Nicolas Cage in the movie
The Family Man. In the film version of
Thumbsucker, the main character, Justin Cobb (
Lou Taylor Pucci), secretly applies and is accepted to NYU.
In addition, the
campus of NYU has been the backdrop for pieces of fiction:
Grace Adler's office in Will & Grace is portrayed in the show as being in the
Puck Building, home to NYU's Wagner School; the movie
Loser was set at NYU;
Henry James' novel
Washington Square is set around the NYU area;
Rose of Washington Square (1939),
13 Washington Square (1928), and
I Am Legend (2007) are centered around the NYU Campus; the
WB show
Felicity was set at the "University of New York", clearly modeled after NYU; and NYU's old University Heights Campus in the Bronx provided the scenery for
A Beautiful Mind (2001),
Mona Lisa Smile (2003),
Sophie’s Choice (1982),
The Thomas Crown Affair (1999), and
Maid in Manhattan (2002).
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